Once a diagnosis has been made and medical treatment is deemed necessary, safe and effective pharmacologic agents that exert the appropriate actions should be selected. A dosing regimen should be individualized for each patient. For antimicrobial drugs, microbial factors, including resistance, also should be considered.
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Pharmacology
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Pharmacology Introduction
- Overview of Pharmacology
- Extra-Label Drug Use, Compounded Drugs, and Generic Drugs
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Drug Action and Pharmacodynamics
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Routes of Administration and Dosage Forms
- Oral Route of Administration and Dosage Forms
- Oral Modified-release Delivery Systems for Ruminants
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Parenteral Route of Administration and Dosage Forms
- Special Dosage Form Considerations with Recombinant Proteins and Peptides:
- Special Dosage Form Considerations with Live Vaccines, Inactivated and Subunit Vaccines, and DNA Vaccines:
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Topical Route of Administration and Dosage Forms
- Specialized Topical Dosage Forms, Delivery Systems, and Application Methods for Parasite Control:
- Inhaled Dosage Forms and Delivery Systems
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Chemical Residues in Food and Fiber
- Nanotechnology
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Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Cardiovascular System
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Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Digestive System
- Overview of Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Digestive System
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Drugs Affecting Appetite (Monogastric)
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Drugs to Control or Stimulate Vomiting (Monogastric)
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Therapy of Gastrointestinal Ulcers (Monogastric)
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Drugs Used in Treatment of Diarrhea (Monogastric)
- Drugs Used in Treatment of Chronic Colitis (Monogastric)
- Gastrointestinal Prokinetic Drugs (Monogastric)
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Cathartic and Laxative Drugs (Monogastric)
- Drugs Affecting Digestive Functions (Monogastric)
- The Ruminant Digestive System
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Drugs for Specific Purposes in the Ruminant Digestive System
- Drug Disposition in the Ruminoreticulum
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Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Eye
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Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Integumentary System
- Overview of Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Integumentary System
- Antibacterials for Integumentary Disease
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Antifungals for Integumentary Disease
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Antiparasitics for Integumentary Disease
- Antihistamines for Integumentary Disease
- Essential Fatty Acids for Integumentary Disease
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Hormonal Therapy for Integumentary Disease
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Immunomodulators for Integumentary Disease
- Psychotropic Agents for Integumentary Disease
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Vitamins and Minerals for Integumentary Disease
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Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Muscular System
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Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Nervous System
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Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Reproductive System
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Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Respiratory System
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Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Urinary System
- Overview of Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Urinary System
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Bacterial Urinary Tract Infections
- Fungal Urinary Tract Infections
- Bacterial Prostatitis
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- Dopamine in Urinary Disease
- Glomerular Disease
- Diabetes Insipidus
- Controlling Urine pH
- Cystine-binding Agents in Urinary Disease
- Urinary Incontinence
- Urine Retention
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Chemotherapeutics Introduction
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Anthelmintics
- Overview of Anthelmintics
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Mechanisms of Action of Anthelmintics
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Pharmacokinetics of Anthelmintics
- Withholding Periods After Anthelmintic Treatment
- Safety of Anthelmintics
- Resistance to Anthelmintics
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- Salicylanilides, Substituted Phenols, and Aromatic Amide
- Praziquantel and Epsiprantel
- Amino-acetonitrile Derivatives
- Cyclic Octadepsipeptides
- Spiroindoles
- Miscellaneous Anthelmintics
- Combination Anthelmintics
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Antibacterial Agents
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Cephalosporins and Cephamycins
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Quinolones, including Fluoroquinolones
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Sulfonamides and Sulfonamide Combinations
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- Streptogramins
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- Polymyxins
- Bacitracins
- Glycopeptides
- Fosfomycin
- Novobiocin Sodium
- Tiamulin Fumarate
- Ionophores
- Rifamycins
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- Hydroxyquinolines
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Antifungal Agents
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Anti-Inflammatory Agents
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Antineoplastic Agents
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Antiseptics and Disinfectants
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Antiviral Agents
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Ectoparasiticides
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Growth Promotants and Production Enhancers
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Vaccines and Immunotherapy
Pharmacology Sections (A-Z)
Anthelmintics
Many highly effective and selective anthelmintics are available, but such compounds must be used correctly, judiciously, and with consideration of the parasite/host interaction to obtain a favorable clinical response, accomplish good control, and minimize selection for anthelmintic resistance. Any decrease or increase of the recommended dose rate must always be discouraged. Underdosing is likely to result in lowered efficacy and possibly increased pressure for development of resistance. Overdosing may result in toxicity without necessarily increasing product efficacy.
Antibacterial Agents
β-Lactam antibiotics, named after the active chemical component of the drug (the 4-membered β-lactam ring), include the 6-membered ring–structured penicillins, monobactams, and carbapenems; and the 7-membered ring–structured cephalosporins and cephamycins. In addition to their chemical structure, the major difference between these two subclasses of β-lactams is their susceptibility to β-lactamase destruction, with the cephalosporins, in general, being more resistant.
Antifungal Agents
Pathogenic fungi affecting animals are eukaryotes, generally existing as either filamentous molds (hyphal forms) or intracellular yeasts. Fungal organisms are characterized by a low invasiveness and virulence. Factors that contribute to fungal infection include necrotic tissue, a moist environment, and immunosuppression. Fungal infections can be primarily superficial and irritating (eg, dermatophytosis) or systemic and life threatening (eg, blastomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis). See also Dermatophytosis and see Fungal Infections.) Clinically relevant dimorphic fungi grow as yeast-like forms in a host but as molds in vitro at room temperature; they include Candida spp, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Coccidioides immitis, Histoplasma capsulatum, Sporothrix schenckii, and Rhinosporidium.
Anti-Inflammatory Agents
Inflammation is the complex pathophysiologic response of vascularized tissue to injury. The injury may result from various stimuli, including thermal, chemical, or physical damage; ischemia; infectious agents; antigen-antibody interactions; and other biologic processes. After tissue injury, the process of tissue healing includes three distinct phases: an inflammatory phase, a repair phase, and a remodeling phase. The desired outcome of the inflammatory response is isolation and elimination of the injurious agent to prepare for the repair of tissue damage at the site of injury and restoration of function. Finally, new tissue formed during the repair phase (eg, scar tissue) may be remodeled over several months.
Antineoplastic Agents
Antineoplastic chemotherapy is an important component of small animal practice and is routinely used for selected tumors of horses and cattle. Effective use of antineoplastic chemotherapy depends on an understanding of basic principles of cancer biology, drug actions, toxicities, and drug handling safety.
Antiseptics and Disinfectants
Antiseptics and disinfectants are nonselective, anti-infective agents that are applied topically. Their activity ranges from simply reducing the number of microorganisms to within safe limits of public health interpretations (sanitization), to destroying all microorganisms (sterilization) on the applied surface. In general, antiseptics are applied on tissues to suppress or prevent microbial infection. Disinfectants are germicidal compounds usually applied to inanimate surfaces. Sometimes the same compound may act as an antiseptic and a disinfectant, depending on the drug concentration, conditions of exposure, number of organisms, etc. To achieve maximal efficiency, it is essential to use the proper concentration of the drug for the purpose intended. The logic that “if a little is good, twice as much is better” is not only uneconomical but often has toxicologic implications.
Antiviral Agents
The conventional approach to control of viral diseases is to develop effective vaccines, but this is not always possible. The objective of antiviral activity is to eradicate the virus while minimally impacting the host and to prevent further viral invasion. However, because of their method of replication, viruses present a greater therapeutic challenge than do bacteria.
Chemotherapeutics Introduction
Treatment with any chemotherapeutic agent involves an understanding of the complex interrelationships among the host animal, the infecting pathogen, and the drug, the interactions of which comprise the chemotherapeutic triangle. The advent of resistance places further emphasis on consideration of these factors when selecting a dosing regimen. That the FDA struggles to identify the most reasonable way to approve antimicrobials while maintaining high standards of proof of efficacy and safety as well as clinician flexibility in the design of dosing regimens is a testament to the complex host, drug, and microbial interactions associated with infections.
Ectoparasiticides
Arthropod parasites (ectoparasites) are major causes of livestock production losses throughout the world. In addition, many arthropod species can act as vectors of disease agents for both animals and people. Treatment with various parasiticides to reduce or eliminate ectoparasites is often required to maintain health and to prevent economic loss in food animals. Some ectoparasiticides were derived from pesticides used to protect crops. The choice and use of ectoparasiticides depend to a large extent on husbandry and management practices, as well as on the type of ectoparasite causing the infestation. Endectocides are capable of killing both internal and external parasites. Accurate identification of the parasite or correct diagnosis based on clinical signs is necessary for selection of the appropriate parasiticide. The selected agent can be administered or applied directly to the animal, or introduced into the environment to reduce the arthropod population to a level that is no longer of economic or health consequence.
Growth Promotants and Production Enhancers
Achieving increased efficiency of conversion of feed into human food products of high quality, without posing any significant risk to the consumer, is an important goal of livestock producers worldwide. The physiologic mechanisms involved in converting feed into muscle, fat, and bone by animals are increasingly being elucidated. Recently, consumer concerns about additives for food production have focused on animal safety, organoleptic quality, and the potential human health hazards of the food we eat.
Pharmacology Introduction
Once a diagnosis has been made and medical treatment is deemed necessary, safe and effective pharmacologic agents that exert the appropriate actions should be selected. A dosing regimen should be individualized for each patient. In addition to the route, which often is based on drug availability or convenience, a number of factors should be considered when designing a dosing regimen. These include host considerations that may alter the response to or disposition of the drugs. Adjustment in route, dose, or interval may be indicated based on host and drug factors. For antimicrobial drugs, microbial factors, including resistance, also should be considered. Finally, particularly for food animals, public health, environmental implications, and regulatory constraints must be considered.
Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Cardiovascular System
See also Principles of Therapy of Cardiovascular Disease and Management and Fluid Therapy.
Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Digestive System
Also see Principles of Therapy of GI Disease.
Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Eye
Also see Ophthalmology.
Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Integumentary System
Also see Principles of Topical Therapy.
Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Muscular System
Drugs that affect skeletal muscle function fall into several therapeutic categories. Some are used during surgical procedures to produce paralysis (neuromuscular blocking agents); others reduce spasticity (skeletal muscle relaxants) associated with various neurologic and musculoskeletal conditions. In addition, several therapeutic agents influence metabolic and other processes in skeletal muscle, including the nutrients required for normal muscle function used to prevent or mitigate degenerative muscular conditions. For example, selenium and vitamin E are used to prevent or treat muscular dystrophies such as white muscle disease (see Nutritional Myodegeneration). The steroidal, nonsteroidal, and various other anti-inflammatory agents (eg, dimethyl sulfoxide) are also commonly used to treat acute and chronic inflammatory conditions involving skeletal muscle. Anabolic steroids promote muscle growth and development and are administered in selected cases in which serious muscle deterioration has developed as a complication of a primary disease syndrome.
Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Nervous System
Drugs used to modify or treat disorders of the nervous system fall into several categories: anticonvulsants or antiepileptic drugs (AEDs), tranquilizers, sedatives, analgesics, and psychotropic agents. Also see Principles of Therapy of Neurologic Disease, discussed in Analgesic Pharmacology, and Principles of Pharmacologic and Natural Treatment for Behavioral Problems.
Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Reproductive System
Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Respiratory System
Systemic Pharmacotherapeutics of the Urinary System
Also see Principles of Therapy of Urinary Disease.
Vaccines and Immunotherapy
The adaptive immune system responds to microbial invasion by producing protective antibodies or cell-mediated immunity, or both. Appropriate administration of specific microbial antigens, as in a vaccine, can provoke effective, longterm resistance to infection. Conserved microbial molecules can also stimulate the development of innate immune responses. This too enhances resistance to infection and may be clinically useful.
Also of Interest
Test your knowledge
Dogs and cats with left-side congestive heart failure (CHF) can develop respiratory distress due to pulmonary edema. Which of the following intravenous diuretics is the most appropriate treatment for life-threatening pulmonary edema caused by CHF?