Primary functions of the musculoskeletal system include support of the body, provision of motion, and protection of vital organs. Many other body systems, including the nervous, vascular, and integumentary systems, are interrelated, and disorders of one of these systems may also affect the musculoskeletal system and complicate diagnosis.
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Musculoskeletal System
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Musculoskeletal System Introduction
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Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Musculoskeletal System
- Overview of Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Musculoskeletal System
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Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Musculoskeletal System in Multiple Species
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Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Musculoskeletal System in Cattle
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Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Musculoskeletal System in Horses
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Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Musculoskeletal System in Sheep
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Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Musculoskeletal System in Pigs
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Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Musculoskeletal System in Small Animals
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Dystrophies Associated with Calcium, Phosphorus, and Vitamin D
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Sarcocystosis
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Arthropathies in Large Animals
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Lameness in Cattle
- Overview of Lameness in Cattle
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Physical Examination of a Lame Cow
- Locomotion Scoring in Cattle
- Computerized Recording of Digital Lesions in Cattle
- Distal Digital Anesthesia for Diagnostic and Surgical Procedures in Cattle
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- Arthrocentesis and Arthroscopy in Cattle
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Risk Factors Involved in Herd Lameness of Cattle
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- Functional Claw Trimming of Cattle
- Prevalent Lameness Disorders in Intensively Managed Herds of Cattle
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Pododermatitis Circumscripta in Cattle
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Toe Necrosis Syndrome in Cattle
- Sole Hemorrhage in Cattle
- Thin Sole in Cattle
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- Other Disorders of the Interdigital Space in Cattle
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Interdigital Dermatitis in Cattle
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Interdigital Phlegmon in Cattle
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Interdigital Hyperplasia in Cattle
- Disorders of the Horn Capsule and Corium in Cattle
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Foreign Body in Sole of Cattle
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- Slipper Foot in Cattle
- Disorders of the Bones and Joints in Cattle
- Ankylosing Spondylosis in Cattle
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Degenerative Arthropathy in Cattle
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Coxofemoral Luxation in Cattle
- Patellar Luxation in Cattle
- Fetlock Dislocation in Cattle
- Hip Dysplasia in Cattle
- Fractures in Cattle
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Septic Arthritis of the Distal Interphalangeal Joint in Cattle
- Serous Tarsitis in Cattle
- Neurologic Disorders Associated with Lameness or Gait Abnormalities in Cattle
- Suprascapular Paralysis in Cattle
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- Ischiatic Paralysis in Cattle
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- Soft-tissue Disorders Causing Lameness in Cattle
- Carpal Hygroma in Cattle
- Rupture of the Gastrocnemius Muscle in Cattle
- Rupture of the Peroneus Tertius Muscle in Cattle
- Tarsal Cellulitis in Cattle
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Lameness in Goats
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Lameness in Horses
- Overview of Lameness in Horses
- The Lameness Examination in Horses
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Imaging Techniques in Equine Lameness
- Arthroscopy in Equine Lameness
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Regional Anesthesia in Equine Lameness
- Disorders of the Foot in Horses
- Osseous Cyst-like Lesions in the Distal Phalanx in Horses
- Bruised Sole and Corns in Horses
- Canker in Horses
- Fracture of Navicular Bone in Horses
- Fracture of Distal Phalanx in Horses
- Keratoma in Horses
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- Pedal Osteitis in Horses
- Puncture Wounds of the Foot in Horses
- Pyramidal Disease in Horses
- Quittor in Horses
- Quarter Crack in Horses
- Scratches in Horses
- White Line Disease in Horses
- Sheared Heels in Horses
- Sidebone in Horses
- Thrush in Horses
- Disorders of the Pastern and Fetlock
- Fractures of the First and Second Phalanx in Horses
- Fractures of the Proximal Sesamoid Bones in Horses
- Osteoarthritis of the Proximal Interphalangeal Joint in Horses
- Palmar/Plantar Metacarpal/Metatarsal Nonadaptive Bone Remodeling in Horses
- Sesamoiditis in Horses
- Chronic Proliferative Synovitis in Horses
- Digital Sheath Tenosynovitis in Horses
- Disorders of the Metacarpus in Horses
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- Inferior Check Desmitis in Horses
- Bucked Shins in Horses
- Exostoses of the Second and Fourth Metacarpal Bones in Horses
- Fractures of the Small Metacarpal (Splint) Bones in Horses
- Fracture of the Third Metacarpal (Cannon) Bone in Horses
- Disorders of the Carpus in Horses
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Fracture of the Carpal Bones in Horses
- Subchondral Bone Disease of the Third Carpal Bone in Horses
- Tearing of the Medial Palmar Intercarpal Ligament in Horses
- Osteoarthritis of the Carpus in Horses
- Distal Radial Exostosis and Osteochondroma of the Distal Radius in Horses
- Carpal Hygroma in Horses
- Rupture of the Common Digital Extensor Tendon in Horses
- Disorders of the Shoulder in Horses
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Developmental Diseases of the Shoulder in Horses
- Fractures of the Shoulder in Horses
- Bicipital Bursitis in Horses
- Infection of the Shoulder in Horses
- Suprascapular Neuropathy in Horses
- Osteoarthritis of the Shoulder in Horses
- Disorders of the Elbow in Horses
- Developmental Orthopedic Disease in the Elbow of Horses
- Fractures of the Elbow in Horses
- Osteoarthritis of the Elbow in Horses
- Collateral Ligament Injury in the Elbow of Horses
- Disorders of the Metatarsus in Horses
- Bucked Shins/Dorsal Cortical Fractures of the Third Metatarsal Bone in Horses
- Exostoses of the Metatarsal Bones in Horses
- Diaphyseal Fracture of the Third Metatarsal Bone in Horses
- Incomplete Longitudinal Fractures of the Plantar Aspect of the Third Metatarsal Bone in Horses
- Focal Bone Reaction and Avulsion Fractures of the Third Metatarsal Bone in Horses
- Fractures of the Second and Fourth Metatarsal Bones in Horses
- Enostosis-like Lesions of the Third Metatarsal Bone in Horses
- Disorders of the Tarsus in Horses
- Failure of Ossification of the Distal Tarsal Bones in Horses
- Osteoarthritis of the Distal Tarsal Joints in Horses
- Osteoarthritis of the Talocalcaneal Joint in Horses
- Osteoarthritis of the Tarsocrural Joint in Horses
- Synovitis/Capsulitis of the Tarsocrural Joint in Horses
- Osteochondrosis of the Tarsocrural Joint in Horses
- Osteitis of the Calcaneus in Horses
- Fractures of the Distal Tarsal Bones in Horses
- Fracture of the Talus in Horses
- Fracture of the Fibular Tarsal Bone (Calcaneus) in Horses
- Fracture of the Lateral Malleolus of the Tibia in Horses
- Tarsal Joint Luxation in Horses
- Desmitis of the Collateral Ligaments of the Tarsus in Horses
- Rupture of the Fibularis (Peroneus) Tertius in Horses
- Stringhalt
- Curb in Horses
- Disorders of the Tarsal Sheath in Horses
- False Thoroughpin in Horses
- Luxation of the Superficial Digital Flexor Tendon from the Tuber Calcanei in Horses
- Gastrocnemius Tendinitis in Horses
- Calcaneal Bursitis in Horses
- Capped Hock
- Disorders of the Stifle in Horses
- Osteochondrosis of the Stifle in Horses
- Subchondral Cystic Lesions in Horses
- Meniscus and Meniscal Ligament Injuries in Horses
- Cranial and Caudal Cruciate Ligament Injuries in Horses
- Collateral Ligament Injuries in Horses
- Intermittent Upward Fixation of the Patella and Delayed Patella Release in Horses
- Fragmentation of the Patella in Horses
- Patellar Luxation in Horses
- Patellar Ligament Injuries in Horses
- Gonitis and Osteoarthritis in Horses
- Chondromalacia of the Femoral Condyles in Horses
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Fractures of the Stifle in Horses
- Disorders of the Hip in Horses
- Luxation of the Coxofemoral Joint in Horses
- Pelvic Fracture in Horses
- Osteoarthritis and other Coxofemoral Joint Diseases in Horses
- Disorders of the Back and Pelvis in Horses
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Spinal Processes and Associated Ligaments in Horses
- Articular Process−Synovial Intervertebral Articulation Complexes in Horses
- Vertebral Bodies and Discs in Horses
- Muscle Strain and Soreness in Horses
- Lumbosacral Junction Abnormalities in Horses
- Sacroiliac Joint Abnormalities in Horses
- Developmental Orthopedic Disease in Horses
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- Physitis in Horses
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Flexural Deformities in Horses
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Lameness in Pigs
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Lameness in Sheep
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Myopathies in Ruminants and Pigs
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Myopathies in Horses
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Bovine Secondary Recumbency
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Lameness in Small Animals
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Arthropathies and Related Disorders in Small Animals
- Overview of Arthropathies and Related Disorders in Small Animals
- Aseptic Necrosis of the Femoral Head in Small Animals
- Patellar Luxation in Small Animals
- Osteochondrosis in Small Animals
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Elbow Dysplasia in Small Animals
- Hip Dysplasia in Small Animals
- Degenerative Arthritis in Small Animals
- Septic Arthritis in Small Animals
- Immune-mediated Arthritis in Small Animals
- Neoplastic Arthritis in Small Animals
- Polyarthritis in Small Animals
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Myopathies in Small Animals
- Overview of Myopathies in Small Animals
- Yellow Fat Disease
- Labrador Retriever Myopathy
- Great Dane Myopathy
- Fibrotic Myopathy in Small Animals
- Myositis Ossificans in Doberman Pinschers
- Polymyositis in Small Animals
- Masticatory Myositis in Small Animals
- Feline Hypokalemic Polymyopathy
- Malignant Hyperthermia in Small Animals
- Exertional Myopathy in Small Animals
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Muscular Trauma in Small Animals
- Muscle Tumors in Small Animals
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Osteopathies in Small Animals
Musculoskeletal System Sections (A-Z)
Arthropathies and Related Disorders in Small Animals
Arthropathies in Large Animals
Also see Lameness in Cattle and Lameness in Horses and Lameness in Sheep and Lameness in Goats and Lameness in Pigs.
Bovine Secondary Recumbency
Recumbency in cattle is caused by numerous metabolic, traumatic, infectious, degenerative, and toxic disorders. If treatment of the underlying cause of recumbency is not successful and cattle are unable to rise for >24 hr after initial recumbency, they may develop a secondary recumbency from pressure damage to muscles and nerves, often termed “downer cow syndrome.” An alert downer cow does not show signs of systemic illness or depression, is able to eat and drink, and remains in sternal recumbency for no apparent reason. A nonalert downer cow appears systemically sick and depressed. Downer cow syndrome also describes the pathology of pressure-induced muscle and nerve injuries after prolonged recumbency. The most important pathophysiologic event that develops during prolonged recumbency is a pressure-induced ischemic necrosis of the thigh muscles that frequently affects both hindlegs.
Congenital and Inherited Anomalies of the Musculoskeletal System
Congenital and inherited anomalies can result in the birth of diseased or deformed neonates. Congenital disorders can be due to viral infections of the fetus or to ingestion of toxic plants by the dam at certain stages of gestation. The musculoskeletal system can also be affected by certain congenital neurologic disorders.
Dystrophies Associated with Calcium, Phosphorus, and Vitamin D
Lameness in Cattle
The lesions that cause lameness in dairy cows result in intense pain and are a major animal welfare issue. Lameness also causes stress, which debilitates and reduces productivity. The financial impact of lameness includes losses from decreased production, cost of treatment, prolonged calving interval, and possibly nursing labor. Loss of milk of 1.7–3 L/day for up to 1 mo before and 1 mo after treatment (because of pain) plus milk discarded because of antibiotic therapy must also be considered. Lame cows are more reluctant to use automatic milking systems and show visible signs of stress when forced to do so.
Lameness in Goats
Abnormality of gait is a sign common to many diseases and conditions. A complete history is important for diagnosis and should include incidence and duration in the herd, nutrition, feed changes, method of rearing, and recent introductions to the herd. (Also see Health-Management Interaction: Goats.)
Lameness in Horses
Lameness is defined as an abnormal stance or gait caused by either a structural or a functional disorder of the locomotor system. The horse is either unwilling or unable to stand or move normally. Lameness is the most common cause of loss of use in horses. It can be caused by trauma, congenital or acquired disorders, infection, metabolic disorders, or nervous and circulatory system disease.
Lameness in Pigs
Lameness has been an issue in swine production for many years and continues to be a problem worldwide. Although lameness can be caused by congenital or developmental abnormalities, most lameness in production animals is caused by pain associated with infections, trauma-related injuries, or underlying metabolic diseases. As such, it has become an area of focus for swine farm audits of animal well-being. It is also an economic issue, because an increasing prevalence or incidence of lameness in a herd is likely to affect viability, growth, or reproduction of pigs. Pig flow may be affected if farrowing targets are not met because of high rates of breeding stock removal or if growth of grower/finisher pigs is slowed by high lameness incidence. As with diseases of other body systems, lameness problems in a swine herd require a comprehensive approach if a diagnosis (or diagnoses) is to be reached so that preventive or curative measures can be instituted.
Lameness in Sheep
Lameness in sheep may be caused by a number of systemic diseases, some of which include navel/joint ill (Escherichia coli and Erysipelothrix), tetanus, white muscle disease, frostbite, chlamydial polyarthritis, rickets, enzootic ataxia (copper deficiency), mastitis, orchitis, nutritional osteodystrophies, selenium toxicosis, laminitis, dermatophilosis, bluetongue, ulcerative dermatosis, and in some countries, foot-and-mouth disease. Weakness, ataxia, and neurologic problems may be misinterpreted as lameness in diseases such as scrapie, listeriosis, and visna. Additional information on differential diagnosis, treatment, and prevention can be found under the specific topics (see Musculoskeletal System Introduction and Nervous System Introduction).
Lameness in Small Animals
Signs of musculoskeletal disorders include weakness, lameness, limb swelling, and joint dysfunction. Motor or sensory neurologic impairment may develop secondary to neuromuscular lesions. Abnormalities of the musculoskeletal system may also affect other organs of the endocrine, urinary, digestive, hemolymphatic, and cardiopulmonary systems. Evaluation of musculoskeletal disease is aimed at localizing and defining the lesion(s). Diagnosis requires accurate review of the signalment, history, and physical status of the animal. A lameness examination is critical to determine a diagnosis. Useful ancillary tests include radiography, ultrasonography, arthrocentesis, arthroscopy, arthrography, electromyography, and tissue biopsy and histopathology. For subtle lesions, advanced imaging techniques, including bone scans, CT, and MRI, are being used with greater frequency in specialty clinics and university hospitals.
Musculoskeletal System Introduction
The musculoskeletal system consists of bones, cartilage, muscles, ligaments, and tendons. Primary functions of the musculoskeletal system include support of the body, provision of motion, and protection of vital organs. The skeletal system serves as the main storage system for calcium and phosphorus and contains critical components of the hematopoietic system. Many other body systems, including the nervous, vascular, and integumentary systems, are interrelated, and disorders of one of these systems may also affect the musculoskeletal system and complicate diagnosis.
Myopathies in Horses
Muscle disorders in horses present with a variety of clinical signs ranging from muscle stiffness and pain to muscle atrophy, weakness, exercise intolerance, and muscle fasciculations. The most common clinical presentation is muscle pain, stiffness, and reluctance to move due to rhabdomyolysis. Rhabdomyolysis, defined as disruption of striated skeletal muscle, can broadly be grouped into causes associated with exercise (exertional rhabdomyolysis) and causes unrelated to exercise.
Myopathies in Ruminants and Pigs
Myopathies in Small Animals
Osteopathies in Small Animals
Sarcocystosis
In sarcocystosis, the endothelium and muscles and other soft tissues are invaded by Apicomplexan protozoans of the genus Sarcocystis. As the name implies, Sarcocystis spp (from Greek sarkos: muscle and kystis: cysts) form cysts in muscles of various intermediate hosts—people, horses, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, birds, rodents, camelids, wildlife, and reptiles. The cysts vary in size from a few micrometers to centimeters, depending on the host and species. Most Sarcocystis spp infections are distributed worldwide.
Also of Interest
Test your knowledge
In all animals, the motor unit of skeletal muscle consists of the motor neuron, the neuromuscular junction, and muscle fibers. Muscle dysfunction—such as ataxia, paresis, or paralysis—most commonly originates in which of the following locations?